An Untold Story of Rwanda
Rwanda’s Untold Story Documentary by BBC
“The most dangerous histories are those which are believed wholly and without hesitation” - Arnaldo Momigliano
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Historiography
This essay will examine the official historical account of the genocide that occurred in Rwanda, 1994, and aim to compare the similarities and differences of how the history of the genocide is written, portrayed, understood, and perceived today. The reality of ‘what really happened’ and the country’s national history of ‘what really happened’ are far from the same. As history is often written and remembered by the victors, a closer examination of the Rwandan genocide reveals a story of government coverups, secrecy, suppression of voice, and plausible deniability. I will attempt to show how the national history of a nation was intentionally manipulated and purposefully distorted (by partiality) for the practical necessity ofrestoring peace and order. History often provides people with the perception of a true story, a story all too often perceived to be a close reality of an event or series of events. This essay aims to show how an untold story brings fuller context to the history of Rwanda and how such history underlies a closer ‘truth’ to reality. To study history and come to an understanding closer to that which is truth (as should be the historian’s goal), as well as understanding how history is made to become truth, historiography plays a critical role in determining how we might otherwise understand the history of a country and reach alternative conclusions to that which is often perceived to be history and truth.
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“Thus, a practically motivated study of something is partial both in the sense that it does not study its material fully but only those ‘parts’ relevant to its objective - and in the sense that the thinking involved demonstrates a ‘partiality’ towards lines of thinking and conclusions appropriate or ‘convenient’ to one’s purposes. Although this does not mean the understandings achieved will necessarily be false (although such a danger threatens), it does mean the study, as angled towards the ends sought, will be ‘distorted” (287). -Lemon (1)
Historical Context
The country of Rwanda is a wonderful place full of attractive landscapes, abundance of natural resources, beautiful people, and exceptionally unique culture. However, aside from these attributes, the history of the country in recent decades tells of acountry full of murder, massacre, rape, starvation, genocide, civil war, and human rights violations.
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, between August and July 1994, an estimated 800,000 people were killed, and 2,000,000 refugees fled and have since been displaced from their homes as a result of civil war between two opposing tribes, the Hutu and the Tutsi. (1) Tensions and disputes between the two tribes has long withstood, but following the first World War, under the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations permitted Belgian occupation of formerly German occupied Rwanda. Belgium, supposedly favoring the Tutsi minority over the Hutu majority, gave the tribe special privileges such as western-style education and authority to govern and rule over Rwanda, including governance of the Hutu. This colonial influence of power to the Tutsi tribe largely contributed to the escalation of conflict from dispute to total war between the Hutu and the Tutsi tribes.
Hutu Revolution
In 1957, the PARMEHUTU (Party for the Emancipation of the Hutus) formed to rebel against Tutsi rule. Shortly thereafter, in 1959, the Hutu militia revolted against the Tutsi monarchy and asserted dominance and authority over the country. The Hutu revolution, otherwise known as the “social revolution”, forced evacuation of an estimated 120,000 Tutsi people (3) into refugee camps in nearby Burundi and Uganda. The Hutu remained in control of Rwanda for the next 35 years, elected official Juvénal Habyarimana as president.
Rwandan Patriotic Front
In 1988, a counter political party was formed called the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), formed by Tutsi exiles in Uganda. Its goal was aimed to retake control of Rwanda for the Tutsi people. Two years after it’s formation, the RPF invaded Rwanda and fought for control for 3 years until the Arusha Peace Accords were signed on August 3rd, 1993. (4) The peace accords established a cease-fire between Hutu and Tutsi tribes in hopes of coming to diplomatic political negotiations.
Presidential Assassination
On April 6th, 1994, president of Rwanda Juvenal Habyarimana and president of Burundi Cyprien Ntaryamira (both Hutu), had just boarded a plane that was preparing to take flight when the plane exploded from a rocket propelled grenade launcher. The explosion killed all passengers on the plane. Although the cause of this event was clear to have been intentional, further investigation found no definitive determination of who carried out the plan. However, the assassination sparked outrage amongst Hutu tribesmen within the country who blamed the RPF were responsible for the attack. Hutu militias soon organized and sought to retaliate. Once organized, the Hutu ended the cease-fire and the peace accords ended.
100-Day Massacre
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Following the assassination, the National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development (MRND) formed to seek retaliation against Tutsi civilians. A genocide campaign was ordered to seek out and kill all Tutsi members in the country. Roadblocks and blockades were constructed and travelers along roadsides were checked of their tribal orientation based on identification (ID) cards. Anyone who was confirmed to be Tutsi were shot to death or, in many cases, killed with machetes. Radio broadcasts were transmitted throughout the country to order Hutu members to kill their neighbors. The Hutu militias continued to storm Rwandan cities, successfully capturing most of the country’s cities, including the capital Kigali. Within 100 days, approximately 800,000 Tutsi civilians were murdered, raped, and cities pillaged. During this 100-day massacre, Tutsi civilian were indiscriminately targeted including men, women, and children.
RPF Control
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In 1990, the RPF led a military coalition against the MRND to retake control of the country. After months of fighting, the RPF began to successfully capture the Rwandan cities. By July 4th, 1994, the RPF captured capital Kigali and on July 18th, 1994, successfully gained control of the entire country. The elected president, Paul Kagame, rose to power as the national president of Rwanda and remains president today, 25 years later.
Kibeho Massacre
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As the RPF regained military and political control of Rwanda, Hutu tribe members fled their homes in fear of being killed. In south-west Rwanda, Hutu refugees gathered in the Kibeho refugee camp. On April 22, 1995, the Tutsi RPF opened fire on the unarmed refugees began indiscriminately murdering them. Australian soldiers serving as part of the United Nations Assistance Mission later estimated that approximately 4,000 people in the camp were killed. The RPF claimed only 300 people were killed. At the time, current president Paul Kagame was vice president of the RPF.
Restorative Peace
Since the RPF invasion, the country has since reestablished peace and order in the society. President Paul Kagame has been accredited by many of the country’s citizens as the person responsible for reestablishing peace. However, the aftermath shows that criminal offenses and atrocites were caused by both sides and criminal justice for these atrocities was deeply desired.
“By the end of 1994, the human toll of the crisis in Rwanda was in the millions. In addition to the 800,000 victims of the genocide and the two million refugees outside Rwanda, some 1.5 million people were internally displaced. Out of a population of seven million, over half had been directly affected.” -United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
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International Criminal Tribunal
In November 1994, the United Nations established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Its sole purpose was to “prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda and neighboring states, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994” (5). It has since “indicted 93 individuals whom it considered responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda in 1994. Those indicted include high-ranking military and government officials, politicians, businessmen, as well as religious, militia, and media leaders.” This tribunal targeted criminals and made a direct effort to incarcerate the individuals that were responsible.
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
Like many countries in Africa (and around the world), Truth Commissions (TC’s) and Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRC’s) are often formed by a national entity following conflict and internal violations of human rights. The general purpose of TC’s and TRC’s are to investigate the human rights violations that occurred by any internally armed government entity and to construct a final report of the incident. In the case of TRC’s, the goal, aside from an investigation and final report, is to establish reconciliation and reunification of the effected survivors/country people. In the case of Rwanda, the goal of the TRC was to mend the damaged relationship between the Hutu and Tutsi people and to prevent human rights violations from occurring again. Following the Arusha Peace Accords of 1993, the International Commission of Investigation on Human Rights Violations in Rwanda since October 1, 1990, was internationally sponsored by the United Nations to investigate the massacres and human rights violations which occurred prior to the peace agreement. In the final report, the United Nations committee concluded that the “FPR has been guilty of summary executions” and that “in all, the number of persons killed throughout the territory is to be numbered in the hundreds of thousands, estimates ranging from 200,000 to 500,000” (7). However, the commission could not advance due to the abrupt end of the cease-fire agreement following the presidential assassination. In 1999, after genocide and civil war seemed to have finally come to an end, another TRC, the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, was established in Rwanda to continue reconciliation and unity. However, this time the focus on the TRC was not to investigate government officials responsible for human rights violations and war crime atrocities, but to focus rather just on reconciliation. Unlike most TC’s and TRC’s that focus primarily on conducting investigations and issuing a final report, the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission never conducted an official investigation, nor did they ever issue a final report.
Note: The National Unity and Reconciliation Commission was nationally sponsored (unlike the International Commission of Investigation on Human Rights Violations in Rwanda since October 1, 1990 which was internationally founded). One could reasonably assume this was primarily the purpose of avoiding investigation, conducting a final report, and causing self-incrimination.
President Paul Kagame - Hero or Villain?
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Paul Kagame was undeniably involved in the delegation of military command connected to the murders that occurred by the RPF in the 1994 invasion to retake Rwanda. He has been accused by many for the assassination of President Juvenal Habyarimana which ended the Arusha Peace Accords and erupted violence and ended the cease-fire. He was also in command of the RPF during the Kibeho massacre. Kagame has denied all accusations against him and these accusations cannot lead to criminal prosecution because of the legal immunity he has as president. In 2017, President Paul Kagame won his third seven-year election by a landslide victory receiving over 98.79% of the vote. One of the Kagames political rivals, Diana Rwigara, an outspoken critic of Kagame, was arrested shortly after the election for alleged offenses against state security. Also, Syridio Dusabumuremyi, a political outspoken critic of Kagame from the United Democratic Forces, was suspiciously found dead with his throat cut and stab wounds to his body. No suspect was connected to the murder, but foul play and political intimidation from Kagame has been speculated by many. The culmination of immunity, fear of persecution of opposing political rivals, all help President Paul Kagame establish himself as one who evades justice from genocidal reality due to his power and position. The history that is written and will be remembered of Paul Kagame by those who support him will often be skewed by the reality of his actions and the ability to “play his cards” so that he is remembered as a hero rather than a villain. To many of the Rwandan citizans today, President Kagame is viewed as a hero who restored peace and order to Rwanda, to others he is a corrupt villain who gained power by corruption and assaination of political rivals.
Partiality - Victims, Memorials, and History
The civil war and human rights violations from both the Tutsi and the Hutu are part of the history of Rwanda in its entirety. Both sides were responsible for war crimes, yet in the country, the genocide is only remembered from a one-sided Tutsi perspective. The Kigali Genocide Memorial website (6), for instance, expresses clearly the desire to commemorate the victims who suffered, however, it clearly excludes all victims. The main page states, “We remember the victims of the genocide against the Tutsi and we teach about peace.” The memorial website also states, “The Kigali Genocide Memorial is the final resting place for more than 250,000 victims of the Genocide against the Tutsi.” These examples of the memorial website goes to show that the remembrance of victims is to focus solely on the Tutsi victims but neglects to remember or commemorate the Hutu victims as well. The reality of the past reveals that atrocities were committed on both sides and victims should be remembered by both sides as well. This partiality of how the country remembers its history is a historiographical alteration that reflects a change from history and the past.
Genocide Denial
Genocide Denial in Rwanda is not the denial that genocide ever occurred, rather, it is the “assertion that the Rwandan genocide did not occur in the manner or to the extent described by scholarship.” In an attempt to cover up the knowledge of secret information and criminal actions by government officials involved in the genocide, the Rwandan government actively suppresses all public speech that contradicts what their official story is. Any person(s) caught speaking outside what is believed to be the true “history” is considered to be a genocide denier and is subject to incarceration. The article, “Denying Genocide or Denying Free Speech? A Case Study of the Application of Rwanda’s Genocide Denial Laws” examines the country’s laws and attempts to “address a specific aspect of Rwanda’s oppressive political climate: the use of criminal prosecutions under the country’s genocide denial laws to restrict free expression.” it is was determined after examination of the federal genocide denial laws that “Rwanda’s genocide denial laws fail to meet the requisite standard of precision under international law”. The legal and political oppression of speech to discuss the history of the genocide is a historiographical distortion between the reality of the past, the history of the past, and the ability for one to study it. Because the study of history as an academic discipline is largely collaborative, the oppression of such inquiry inhibits the ability for open and collaborate understanding of such history to exist. Those that oppose the legal and political authority and seek to find ‘truth’ are at risk of persecution, which establishes such ‘truth’ as the story told exclusively by the Rwandan government.
Conclusion
The story of Rwanda tells a story of country that underwent a tragedy of war crimes and human rights violations. The stories of the people and the histories they experienced often differ from a singule official government perspective. In this instance, the historiography of an altered and distorted history allowed for the cover ups of government atrocities, immunity of criminal prosecution, and the oppression of free inquiry/investigation to seek ‘truth’. It is also reveals the danger of how partiality of history can be used to intentionally manipulate and distort reality to fit a national narrative and how such historiographical consequences can still exist today. The modern age of ‘making history’ is no more/less subseptible to speculation and understadning perspectives of reality than it has been in the past. Compared to standard Eurocentric history (history taught primarily from a European perspective and mostly about the history of Europe) taught in public schools naionwide wide, African history (even in the postmodern era) is mostly left out. Think about it, ask people around and compare to see how many have heard of the tragedy of the 20th century European Holocaust that occurred 75 years ago. Now, compare that to the general knowldge of the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 that occurred 25 years ago. You may be suprised to discover how both tragedies that occurred on different continents are unequally acknowledged on the global scale.
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Bibliography
(1) Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1966. “Time in Ancient Historiography.” History and Theory 6: 1–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/2504249.
(1) Lemon, M.C. The Philosophy of History : A Guide for Students. 2003.
(2) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. The State of the World’s Refugees: The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath. 2000. https://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bb60.pdf
(3) Outreach Programme on the Rwanda Genocide and the United Nations.https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/historical-background.shtml
(4) Arusha Accord - 4 August 1993. Peace Accords Matrix (Date of retrieval: (11/10/2019), Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame. 2015. https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/arusha-accord-4-august-1993
(5) Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Such Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighboring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/statuteinternationalcriminaltribunalforrwanda.aspx
(6) Kigali Genocide Memorial: Remembrance and Learning. (Date of Retrieval: 11/10/19) https://www.kgm.rw/
(7) Rwanda’s Untold Story BBC Documentary, 2014. https://vimeo.com/107867605
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